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Introduced in the 1980s, neutral liquids assisted laser processing (LALP) has proved to be advantageous in the cutting of heat-sensitive materials, shock peening of machine parts, cleaning of surfaces, fabrication of micro-optical components, and for generation of nanoparticles in liquids. The liquids used range from water through organic solvents to cryoliquids. The primary aim of Handbook of Liquids-Assisted Laser Processing is to present the essentials of previous research (tabulated data of experimental conditions and results), and help researchers develop new processing and diagnostics techniques (presenting data of liquids and a review of physical phenomena associated with LALP). Engineers can use the research results and technological innovation information to plan their materials processing tasks. Laser processing in liquids has been applied to a number of different tasks in various fields such as mechanical engineering, microengineering, chemistry, optics, and bioscience. A comprehensive glossary with definitions of the terms and explanations has been added. The book covers the use of chemically inert liquids under normal conditions. Laser chemical processing examples are presented for comparison only. Each page in a Print Replica book looks just like the print version, with the same words and images in the same position, but it includes features such as annotation, highlighting, and zoom functions. Page numbers correspond to the print versions, so you can easily find the information you need. Reading progress is also synced across multiple Kindle apps, so you can “save the page” if you need to switch devices. http://freshandgleam.com/userfiles/cx-803a-manual.xml rca hd52w59 service manual, rca hd52w59 manual. Each page in a Print Replica book looks just like the print version, with the same words and images in the same position, but it includes features such as annotation, highlighting, and zoom functions. Page numbers correspond to the print versions, so you can easily find the information you need. Reading progress is also synced across multiple Kindle apps, so you can “save the page” if you need to switch devices. However, due to transit disruptions in some geographies, deliveries may be delayed.There’s no activationEasily readThe Handbook of solid-state lasers reviews the key materials, processes and applications of solid-state lasers across a wide range of fields. Part one begins by reviewing solid-state laser materials. Fluoride laser crystals, oxide laser ceramics, crystals and fluoride laser ceramics doped by rare earth and transition metal ions are discussed alongside neodymium, erbium and ytterbium laser glasses, and nonlinear crystals for solid-state lasers. Part two then goes on to explore solid-state laser systems and their applications, beginning with a discussion of the principles, powering and operation regimes for solid-state lasers. The use of neodymium-doped materials is considered, followed by system sizing issues with diode-pumped quasi-three level materials, erbium glass lasers, and microchip, fiber, Raman and cryogenic lasers. Laser mid-infrared systems, laser induced breakdown spectroscope and the clinical applications of surgical solid-state lasers are also explored. The use of solid-state lasers in defense programs is then reviewed, before the book concludes by presenting some environmental applications of solid-state lasers. http://www.ferruccigroup.it/userfiles/cx-dh801n-manual.xml With its distinguished editors and international team of expert contributors, the Handbook of solid-state lasers is an authoritative guide for all those involved in the design and application of this technology, including laser and materials scientists and engineers, medical and military professionals, environmental researchers, and academics working in this field. Fluoride laser crystals, oxide laser ceramics, crystals and fluoride laser ceramics doped by rare earth and transition metal ions are discussed alongside neodymium, erbium and ytterbium laser glasses, and nonlinear crystals for solid-state lasers. Part two then goes on to explore solid-state laser systems and their applications, beginning with a discussion of the principles, powering and operation regimes for solid-state lasers. The use of neodymium-doped materials is considered, followed by system sizing issues with diode-pumped quasi-three level materials, erbium glass lasers, and microchip, fiber, Raman and cryogenic lasers. Laser mid-infrared systems, laser induced breakdown spectroscope and the clinical applications of surgical solid-state lasers are also explored. The use of solid-state lasers in defense programs is then reviewed, before the book concludes by presenting some environmental applications of solid-state lasers.We value your input. Share your review so everyone else can enjoy it too.Your review was sent successfully and is now waiting for our team to publish it. Reviews (0) write a review Updating Results If you wish to place a tax exempt orderCookie Settings Thanks in advance for your time. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.Origami principles can be used to produce complex structures. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2017. Reproduced with permission from Emerald Publishing, copyright 1997. https://www.thebiketube.com/acros-boss-br-864-manual-espa-ol Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2018. Reprinted with permission of Taylor and Francis, copyright 2000. After the laser has passed and the area locally cools, ( c ) the compressive forces remain, causing the substrate the bend toward the laser and generating a bend angle, ?. The compressive forces ( b ) are pushing opposite of each other, causing the workpiece to buckle. Once the buckling has formed, it ( c ) propagates and leads to bending in the direction opposite to the buckle. As the buckle is an instability, it can buckle in either direction. Instead, the thermal gradient is established horizontally. The plastic compressive forces that resist the thermal expansion are insufficient to cause buckling, as the bending moment is too large. This results in the ( b ) scanned area locally thickening. Since volume is conserved, the workpiece shortens and changes its Gaussian curvature. Copper has a much higher absorbance to the 514 nm beam from an Ar-ion laser. Reprinted with permission from Cambridge University Press, copyright 2017. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2012. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2017. For more advanced structures, laser forming algorithms need to consider the optical path of the laser beam, as this couples the unfolding algorithm and the path planning. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2018. This review discusses the laser forming process, beginning with the mechanisms before covering various design considerations. Laser forming for the rapid manufacturing of metal parts is then reviewed, including the recent advances in process planning, before highlighting promising future research directions.Flat structures need to be carefully assembled to produce the desired 3D shape, whether a ship, an automobile, or a solar array. http://juanguillermocadena.com/images/carrier-service-manuals-pdf.pdf These algorithms are not limited to paper, although the algorithms typically neglect the effect of substrate thickness and, thus, work best on materials that are thin and inextensible, like paper. Origami manufacturing using computational design algorithms is a relatively new method for rapid prototyping. Origami folding, which allows rapid and cheap creation of 3D shells of material, is therefore an important complementary technology, well-suited for many devices, such as antennas, waveguides, and other systems that rely on thin layers of metal. Thin metal sheets are easy to bend, and overhangs can be generated with almost any degree of bend angle, enabling the production of complex shapes with simple folds and cuts ( Figure 1 g). Successful metal origami requires precise control over the bending of the sheets of metal. Press brakes involves placing the sheet metal over a shaped die and then applying intense mechanical pressure to force the metal into the die. Roll forming involves the gradual bending of the sheet metal by passing through successively narrower rollers. A change of design shape or material means this testing would need to be repeated, making this a poor choice for rapid prototyping. Line heating uses a gas torch to carefully heat a piece of metal followed by cooling the part rapidly in water to generate plastic strains that bend the metal. This process, unlike press break forming, is highly labor intensive. The process is similar to line forming, but uses lasers to localize the heating. While this review uses the term “laser forming” for thermal metal forming processes, as accepted in the related research community, we want to address potential confusion in terminology. Another technique also used for laser bending is laser peen forming (also known as laser shock forming). This process is entirely mechanical and, thus, susceptible to the similar drawbacks of more conventional fabrication. Instead, we aim to survey laser forming as a rapid prototyping strategy for developing 3D structures from flat substrates. This review of laser forming begins with a discussion of the three dominant sub-mechanisms of laser forming, before discussing how to select appropriate process parameters to achieve a desired bend shape. We then survey the application space of laser forming, from larger scale fabrication to smaller scale rapid prototyping and adjustment, before providing an outlook on current challenges and unresolved problems in the field. 2. Laser Forming Mechanisms Laser forming is a relatively broad term that refers to the plastic deformation of a workpiece resulting from laser-induced thermal stresses. Once the piece has time to cool, the material scanned by the laser returns to its normal volume, but the compressive stresses remain in the piece. Beyond predicting the bending direction, researchers have also developed ways to control the buckling direction. As bending with the buckling mechanism can occur both toward and away from the laser, there can be some ambiguity which mechanism is occurring. Downward bending currently remains the best confirmation that buckling is occurring, because the TGM only bends the workpiece toward the laser. The upsetting mechanism begins in a similar manner to the buckling mechanism. The proposed coupling mechanism is a consequence of the mechanisms above being idealized, limiting cases. Laser forming, therefore, is a general process reliant on controlled heating to generate plastic stresses, and appears possible for most materials. Critical to the success of the laser forming process is appropriate coupling of the laser energy to the material being formed. Nd:YAG lasers are popular in industry as the 1.064 ?m output wavelength is better absorbed by metals for cutting and welding, so absorbing coatings are not needed. The laser energy was absorbed by a resinous black coating applied to the surface of the plastic. The laser power was kept low and the scan speed high, to ensure that the bending occurred through the temperature gradient mechanism, which reliably generates bending toward the laser. As expected, this was observed when the resin was on the side of the plastic exposed to the laser. With the same process parameters, but the coating placed on the opposite side, the plastic was reliably bent away from the laser. This downward bending should not be possible if using the TGM, but the optical transparency of HDPE to the laser made the system behave as if it was exposed to a laser on the underside and the TGM was causing the plastic to bend that direction. This same technique could be adopted for laser systems with multiple wavelengths, as glass absorbs the radiation from a CO 2 laser, but is transparent to the light from a Nd:YAG laser. As seen in Figure 6, some metals, such as copper, are highly reflective to the fundamental wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser (1.064 ?m). Consequently, laser forming copper with a Nd:YAG laser requires a substantially higher power or the use of a different wavelength. Typically, laser power is kept low and speeds high to ensure that the substrate is being bent by the TGM, generating reliable bending toward the laser. Consistent laser forming requires that the workpiece be cooled to the same thermal state in between each laser pass. The majority of laser forming setups use free convection with the surrounding air to cool the workpiece, which is relatively slow and leads to a pronounced increase in processing time ( Figure 7 a). All these methods showed a pronounced reduction in the total processing time, as the workpieces cooled to room temperature in a matter of seconds, with active water cooling showing the largest reduction in processing time. Active cooling systems are not typically desirable when designing manufacturing processes, as they require pumps that increase both capital and operating costs of the process, but they are acceptable if the active cooling offers a substantial decrease in processing time or improvement in the reliability of a process. Overall, integrated cooling systems offer a way to increase the throughput of laser forming by greatly reducing the time needed to establish thermal equilibrium in between laser passes for multi-pass forming. These structures highlight different uses for laser forming in a manufacturing environment, as ship hulls and fuselage panels are low-volume parts, whereas car doors are high-volume components. Both high-volume and low-volume products need to be joined to other parts, which is the second use for laser forming in manufacturing of macro-scale objects. These distortions arise from two main contributions. The ability to shape large 3D objects using only a laser offers promising opportunities, such as remote deployment, the production of replacement parts where they are needed rather than at a centralized facility and shipped. A laser system is more compact than a hydraulic press and the high energy efficiency of CO 2 and diode lasers lowers the energy consumption required for metal bending. Currently, there are two main methods for developing curvature in laser formed parts. The ability to generate these surfaces from flat sheets using laser forming greatly expands the design space of 3D structures that can be rapidly prototyped. Laser formed tubes bend toward the laser, though researchers disagree about what mechanism is causing the bending. Like the laser forming of sheets, laser tube bending is a highly flexible method that does not require specially designed dies. Matching the optical absorbance of the substrate with the laser output allows the energy to couple more effectively, lowering the laser power required for successful laser forming. The precise control of heating enables silicon microstructures to be bent out of plane, even with more thermally sensitive components, as long as the thermally sensitive components are not located near the laser scan path. This coupling leads to both in-plane shortening and out-of-plane bending, which is especially common in actuators. Bridge actuators are micromechanical structures that hold functional components and allow fine adjustments to the final positioning to be made. Bridge actuators are produced by removing most of the structural material in a small area, so that they are connected by thin strips called bridges. When laser forming a two-bridge actuator, the scan path effectively creates two hot and two cold sides, the usual irradiated and unirradiated sides of the work piece, as well as a hot bridge and a cold bridge. The optical fiber is flexible, so the bend in the metal tube will cause a deflection in the fiber tip. This promise remains largely unfulfilled compared to more conventional 3D printing for various reasons. Since 3D printers build structures in a layer-by-layer fashion, the STL file needs to be passed to a slicer, which converts the 3D object to the build layers. From this file, the scan path is developed, and support structures are calculated if the object needs them. Critical to the broad adoption of laser forming for rapid prototyping is developing a similar software structure that can convert a CAD file into a path planning program, which also calculates the appropriate lasing setting to produce the desired 3D object without human intervention. This demonstration is notable for many reasons, chiefly the entire production was done in the laser system. The researchers started from a blank sheet of metal that was laser formed to produce the desired bends, and the final structure was cut from the sheet using the same laser. As the buckling mechanism was only recently reported and control strategies were limited, the researchers were laser forming only using TGM. The complex shape of the car door required both concave and convex bending, so the workpiece needed to be manually flipped to produce the bi-directional bending needed for the car panel. While these experiments involved no prediction of laser settings, the researchers introduced a novel feedback system, where the scanning speed was adjusted to produce the desired bend angle. Additionally, a car panel might be considered far from an arbitrary design, so the scan pattern was relatively easy to design. The design of irradiation paths involves more than planning where the beam needs to be applied to generate a desired shape, but also the laser power and travel speed, to produce the desired degree of bending using the appropriate forming mechanism. One limitation of these design systems is the limited degree of bending required in the validation structures. These limitations are more prominent, as engineers have started using laser forming to produce highly complex structures. Realizing that laser forming was not limited to moderate bending, but could be used for larger folds (up to ninety degrees or higher), our group began envisioning what origami structures can be produced with laser forming. Laser forming with TGM is limited to ninety-degree bends, as further bending results in the workpiece blocking the laser path, but this limitation does not exist if using the buckling mechanism to bend away from the laser. By using a Nd:YAG laser instead of a CO 2 laser, an absorbing coating was not needed, allowing for marking of the metal at low powers. Rapidly producing these structures from a blank metal sheet using multiple bending modes and laser cutting demonstrated the potential for laser forming to be a viable rapid prototyping strategy. It was worth noting that the laser cutting made more precise cuts than electro-discharge machining, the usual technology used to produce the slots in the waveguide. In fact, the entire laser process of cutting and bending was faster than conventional machining that only produces the slots. Laser forming can also be used to produce an inductor with an overpass or bending the inductor out of plane. Both reports demonstrated that laser forming could be used to rapidly prototype functional devices, as the designs can easily be iterated, as it only requires changing the location or size of lines in a 2D CAD drawing. This process, however, still requires human input to exchange the metal sheets between design iterations, which would limit the industrial adoption of laser forming for rapid prototyping or producing custom parts. This set up allowed features to be readily cut and folded from the sheet metal using the TGM. Additionally, the metal sheet had a pre-strain from being wound onto a roll that was used to reliably generate downward bending using the buckling mechanism, producing the same complex shapes from our previous work in an automated process ( Figure 10 e). Once the piece was formed, it was released from the sheet and fell down a chute, before the rolls were spun to introduce a new working area. This was the first demonstration of a fully automated laser forming process to produce complex 3D structures. While impressive, producing these structures relied on our previously designed scan paths and laser settings. For many of the structures, we relied on the self-limiting nature of ninety-degree bends, so that precise control over the laser settings was not needed. Accurately determining the laser power, speed, and number of passes would be required, if the desired structures included intermediate bends. As current laser forming setups rely on an unobstructed optical path between the laser and the fold line, this visibility constraint effectively couples the two problems. Over the years, laser forming has emerged as a viable rapid prototyping strategy that is complementary to metal 3D printing. Understanding of the sub-mechanisms has allowed researchers to develop scan strategies for many 3D shapes, but the complex thermomechanical process makes it near mandatory to automate this process. This need becomes most pronounced when more complex 3D structures and devices are being laser formed, especially ones that require multiple forming mechanisms. Solutions to this inverse design problem are rapidly developing, and will hopefully make laser forming as accessible as 3D printing. 4. Conclusions and Outlook Laser forming has developed dramatically over the past forty years, from a mechanistic understanding of the process to the successful laser origami of complex 3D shapes and the algorithms to design their laser scan patterns. As the field matures and laser forming is adopted as a viable rapid prototyping strategy, new research opportunities abound. Like any other prototyping technology, laser forming is valuable for certain structures, while not being preferable for others. Deciding if laser forming is the preferred fabrication methods requires design heuristics that have yet to be clarified. Continued research efforts should be focused on clarifying these heuristics, while expanding the capabilities of the laser forming by developing it as a robust technology that is able to reliably produce functional, near-arbitrary 3D structures from flat substrates in an automated manufacturing environment. To this end, researchers will need to address current gaps in the understanding of the laser forming process, which will inform the design and control algorithms. Laser forming involves rapid heating and cooling cycles that can cause changes in the microstructure of the metal during the process. Microstructural control is very important for titanium pieces in the aerospace industry, as the mechanical properties and fatigue resistance of titanium and its alloys are highly dependent on having precise control over the grains. Other industries and applications might not have as stringent requirements on the grain structure, but these reports suggest there may be some degradation in the mechanical properties of laser formed parts compared to mechanically bent structures, an area that needs further investigation. The microstructure of a material influences more than mechanical properties, so these other properties need to be considered when deciding to laser form an object. Of particular concern to the shipbuilding industry might be corrosion resistance to the salty ocean water. There is a need to study systematically the suitability of a laser formed material for use in a corrosive environment as a function of the material’s properties, the nature of the corrosive species, and the laser forming parameters. Applications could include ship hulls in salt water, or a laser bent tube in a chemical processing plant. For laser forming to move from academic research to an industrial process, stronger control schemes and predictive modelling need to be developed. The state-of-the-art algorithms either develop the optimal laser settings for relatively simple shapes based on finite element modelling, or they use experimental data to develop a laser scan path to produce near-arbitrary 3D shapes. The next step would be to develop an algorithm that combines these methods to develop a scan path for near-arbitrary shapes and the optimal laser settings to produce this shape, as some regions might only need bending, while others require shortening. Combining these algorithms would enable additional constraints to be designed around, as the laser-substrate interaction does more than just bend the workpiece. Most laser forming setups are run in a batch process with one sheet being bent at a time. Taken together, one could imagine a fully automated process wherein blank sheet metal is fed, then different lasers will cut, mark, chemically pattern, and then fold it into a desired 3D structure with inline quality control. Developing such a system will require developing further control schemes to know when and where to bend the structure in this complex process to yield the desired result. Laser forming is a valuable technology that is poised to address two notable shortcomings of metal 3D printing—large structures and thin structures. Fully realizing this potential will require developing a detailed understanding of how the laser forming process impacts material properties to produce advanced planning and control schemes. With a completely automated process, laser forming will be available to make the rapid prototyping of metallic structures even lighter. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding The research was funded by the Army Research Laboratory and was accomplished under Cooperative Agreement Number W911NF-20-2-0243. Acknowledgments The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Laboratory or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.Copyright SAGE publications, 2016. Origami principles can be used to produce complex structures. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2017. Reproduced with permission from Emerald Publishing, copyright 1997.Copyright SAGE publications, 2016. Origami principles can be used to produce complex structures. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature, copyright 2017. Reproduced with permission from Emerald Publishing, copyright 1997. Brittle materials, such as titanium, require a preheating step to exceed the ductile-brittle transition temperature, so they can be bent without breaking. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2018. Reprinted with permission of Taylor and Francis, copyright 2000.Brittle materials, such as titanium, require a preheating step to exceed the ductile-brittle transition temperature, so they can be bent without breaking. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2000. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier, copyright 2018. Reprinted with permission of Taylor and Francis, copyright 2000. Schematic of the temperature gradient mechanism during the immediate laser exposure ( a ) showing the thermal gradient established through the thickness of the substrate, while ( b ) the thermal expansion causes a counter-bend that also generates plastic, compressive strains. After the laser has passed and the area locally cools, ( c ) the compressive forces remain, causing the substrate the bend toward the laser and generating a bend angle, ?.Schematic of the temperature gradient mechanism during the immediate laser exposure ( a ) showing the thermal gradient established through the thickness of the substrate, while ( b ) the thermal expansion causes a counter-bend that also generates plastic, compressive strains.